Ethereum: Unterschied zwischen den Versionen

2016 wurde Ethereum in zwei [[Blockchains]] aufgespalten, dies hatte als Ursache den Kollaps des Projekts [[The DAO (organization)|The DAO]], dadurch entstand [[Ethereum Classic]].<ref name="FTCBV">{{cite web|url=https://futurism.com/the-dao-heist-undone-97-of-eth-holders-vote-for-the-hard-fork/|title=The DAO Heist Undone: 97% of ETH Holders Vote for the Hard Fork|last=De Jesus|first=Cecille|date=19 July 2016|publisher=Futurism, LLC.|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="CNMVEHF">{{cite web|url=https://www.cryptocoinsnews.com/miners-vote-overwhelmingly-support-ethereums-hardfork/|title=Miners Vote Overwhelmingly in Support of Ethereum's Hardfork|last=Quentson|first=Andrew|date=17 July 2016|publisher=Cryptocoinnews|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="CSHFS">{{cite web|url=http://www.coindesk.com/coindesk-research-spotlight-study-q3-ethereum-hard-fork/|title=CoinDesk Research: Ethereum Hard Fork Had Little Impact on Sentiment|last=Bradley|first=Miles|date=17 November 2016|publisher=Coindesk|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref>

Zur Zeit der öffentlichen Bekanntmachung im Januar 2014, bestand das Kernentwickler-Team aus Vitalik Buterin, Mihai Alisie, Anthony Di Iorio und Charles Hoskinson.<ref>

| N.V.<ref name=AADCBTmilestones/>

| N.V.<ref name=AADCBTmilestones/>

=== Der DAO-Hart-Fork ===

In 2016 a [[decentralized autonomous organization]] called [[The_DAO_(organization)|The DAO]], a set of [[smart contract]]s developed on the platform, raised a record {{US$|150 million}} in a [[Crowdfunding#Software_value_token|crowdsale]] to fund the project.<ref name=WSJDAOCC>{{cite news |last=Vigna|first=Paul |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chiefless-company-rakes-in-more-than-100-million-1463399393 |title=Chiefless Company Rakes In More than $100 Million|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|date=16 May 2016|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref> The DAO was exploited in June when {{US$|50 million}} in ether were claimed by an anonymous entity.<ref name="NYTDAOHACK">{{cite news|last=Popper|first=Nathaniel|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/18/business/dealbook/hacker-may-have-removed-more-than-50-million-from-experimental-cybercurrency-project.html|title=Hacker May Have Taken $50 Million From Cybercurrency Project|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 June 2016|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="BIDAOHACK">{{cite web|last=Price|first=Rob|url=http://uk.businessinsider.com/dao-hacked-ethereum-crashing-in-value-tens-of-millions-allegedly-stolen-2016-6|title=Digital Currency Ethereum is Cratering Amid Claims of a $50 Million Hack|website=Business Insider|publisher=Business Insider|date=17 June 2016|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref> The event sparked a debate in the crypto-community about whether Ethereum should perform a contentious "hard fork" to reappropriate the stolen funds.<ref name="IEEEDAOHK">{{Cite web|last=Peck|first=Morgan|url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/networks/hacked-blockchain-fund-the-dao-chooses-a-hard-fork-to-redistribute-funds|title="Hard Fork" Coming to Restore Ethereum Funds to Investors of Hacked DAO|website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News|publisher=IEEE|date=19 July 2016|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref> As a result of the dispute, the network split in two, Ethereum (the subject of this article) and [[Ethereum Classic]]. The hard fork created a rivalry between the two networks.<ref name="CD2ETHS">{{cite web|last=Hertig|first=Alyssa|url=http://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-classic-explained-blockchain/|title=Ethereum's Two Ethereums Explained|publisher=CoinDesk|date=28 July 2016|access-date=15 May 2017}}</ref>

After the initial hard fork, Ethereum subsequently forked two times in the fourth quarter of 2016 to deal with other attacks.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://news.bitcoin.com/ethereum-plans-hard-fork-twice/|title=Ethereum to Hard Fork Two More Times Following Recent Attacks|last=Redman|first=Jamie|date=14 October 2016|website=Bitcoin.com|publisher=Bitcoin.com|access-date=22 November 2016}}</ref> By the end of November 2016, Ethereum had increased its [[Denial-of-service_attack|DDoS]] protection, de-bloated the blockchain, and thwarted further spam attacks by hackers.<ref name="CDHFSFSG"/>

== Architecture ==

The value token of the Ethereum blockchain is called ether. It is listed under the code ETH and traded on [[cryptocurrency]] exchanges. It is also used to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the Ethereum network.<ref name=NYTEVCRB>

Tokens can be volatile per circumstances, such as ether's plunge from $21.50 to $8 when [[The_DAO_(organization)|The DAO]] was hacked on 17 June 2016.<ref name=BIDAOHACK/>  As of June 2017, the value of ether had risen to more than $400, a 5,000% rise since the beginning of the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/12/ethereum-price-hits-record-high-after-bitcoin.html |title=Ethereum hits another record high after bitcoin and is now up over 5,000% since the start of the year |last=Kharpal|first=Arjun |date=12 June 2017 |work=[[CNBC]] |accessdate= 24 June 2017 }}</ref>  Volatility continued, however, including a "flash crash" triggered by a large sell order on one exchange which briefly dropped the price to $0.10, after which it recovered to more than $300.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/22/ethereum-price-crash-10-cents-gdax-exchange-after-multimillion-dollar-trade.html |title=Ethereum briefly crashed from $319 to 10 cents in seconds on one exchange after ‘multimillion dollar’ trade |last=Kharpal|first=Arjun |date=22 June 2017 |work=[[CNBC]] |accessdate= 24 June 2017 }}</ref>

=== Ethereum Virtual Machine ===

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ethdocs.org/en/latest/introduction/what-is-ethereum.html#ethereum-virtual-machine|title=What is Ethereum? — Ethereum Homestead 0.1 documentation|website=ethdocs.org}}</ref><ref name="IESevm">{{cite book|last=Dannen|first=Chris|date=2017|chapter=The EVM|title=Introducing Ethereum and Solidity: Foundations of Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Programming for Beginners|publisher=Apress|pages=47–67|ISBN=9781484225356}}</ref> is the runtime environment for smart contracts in Ethereum. The formal definition of the EVM is specified in the Ethereum Yellow Paper by Gavin Wood.<ref>[http://gavwood.com/paper.pdf Ethereum Yellow Paper] by Gavin Wood</ref><ref name="DEBA20">{{cite report|last=Triantafyllidis|first=Nikolaos Petros|date=19 February 2016|chapter=The Ethereum Project: Ethereum History|title=Developing an Ethereum Blockchain Application|publisher=University of Amsterdam|page=20}}</ref> It is sandboxed and also completely isolated from the network, filesystem or other processes of the host computer system. Every Ethereum node in the network runs an EVM implementation and executes the same instructions. Ethereum Virtual Machines have been implemented in [[C++]], [[Go (programming language)|Go]], [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], [[Rust (programming language)|Rust]], and [[WebAssembly]] (currently under development).<ref name=AADCBTclients>{{cite book|last1=Asharaf|first1=S.|last2=Adarsh|first2=S.|date=2017|chapter=Appendix 1: Ethereum Clients|title=Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities|publisher=IGI Global|page=98|isbn=9781522521938}}</ref><ref name="eWASM">{{cite web|url=https://www.crypto-news.net/ethereum-devs-publish-roadmap-for-evm-upgrade/|last=Dannen|first=Chris|date=27 March 2017|title=Ethereum Devs Publish Roadmap for EVM Upgrade|publisher=CryptoNews}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://entethalliance.atlassian.net/wiki/display/EEA/Ethereum+Client+Implementations|title=Ethereum Client Implementations - EntEthAlliance - Confluence|website=entethalliance.atlassian.net}}</ref>

=== Smart contracts ===

[[Smart contract]]s are deterministic exchange mechanisms controlled by digital means that can carry out the direct transaction of value between untrusted [[Agent (economics)|agents]].<ref name=SZABOISC>{{cite web|url=http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/rob/Courses/InformationInSpeech/CDROM/Literature/LOTwinterschool2006/szabo.best.vwh.net/idea.html|last=Szabo|first=Nick|date=1997|title=The Idea of Smart Contracts}}</ref> They can be used to facilitate, verify, and enforce the negotiation or performance of economically-laden procedural instructions and potentially circumvent [[censorship]], [[collusion]], and [[Credit risk#Counterparty risk|counter-party risk]]. In Ethereum, smart contracts are treated as autonomous scripts or [[State (computer science)|stateful]] decentralized applications that are stored in the Ethereum blockchain for later execution by the EVM.

Instructions embedded in Ethereum contracts are paid for in ether (or more technically "gas") and can be implemented in a variety of [[Turing complete]] scripting languages.<ref name=CDUE/><ref name=AADCBTc1>{{cite book|last1=Asharaf|first1=S.|last2=Adarsh|first2=S.|date=2017|chapter=Bridging the Blockchain Knowledge Gap|title=Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities|publisher=IGI Global|pages=1–20|isbn=9781522521938}}</ref>

==== Contracts on the public blockchain ====

As the contracts can be public, it opens up the possibility to prove functionality, e.g. self-contained [[provably fair]] casinos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Piasecki|first=Piotr J.|year=2016|title=Gaming Self-Contained Provably Fair Smart Contract Casinos|url=http://www.ledgerjournal.org/ojs/index.php/ledger/article/view/29|journal=[[Ledger (journal)|Ledger]]|volume=1|pages=99–110|doi=10.5195/ledger.2016.29}}</ref>

One issue related to using smart contracts on a public blockchain is that bugs, including security holes, are visible to all but cannot be fixed quickly.<ref name="Peck20160528">{{cite web|url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/networks/ethereums-150-million-dollar-dao-opens-for-business-just-as-researchers-call-for-a-moratorium|title=Ethereum's $150-Million Blockchain-Powered Fund Opens Just as Researchers Call For a Halt|first=M.|last=Peck|date=28 May 2016|work=[[IEEE Spectrum]]|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]}}</ref> One example of this is the 17 June 2016 attack on The DAO, which could not be quickly stopped or reversed.<ref name="NYTDAOHACK" />

There is ongoing research on how to use formal verification to express and prove non-trivial properties. A [[Microsoft Research]] report noted that writing solid smart contracts can be extremely difficult in practice, using The DAO hack to illustrate this problem. The report discussed tools that Microsoft had developed for verifying contracts, and noted that a large-scale analysis of published contracts is likely to uncover widespread vulnerabilities. The report also stated that it is possible to verify the equivalence of a Solidity program and the EVM code.<ref>{{cite web|title=Short Paper: Formal Verification of Smart Contracts|url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/nswamy/papers/solidether.pdf|website=microsoft.com/|publisher=Microsoft|accessdate=25 August 2016|archive-url=https://web-beta.archive.org/web/20160827092146/http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/nswamy/papers/solidether.pdf|archive-date=27 August 2016}}</ref>

=== Programming languages ===

Smart contracts are [[High-level programming language|high-level]] programming [[Abstraction (software engineering)|abstractions]] that are compiled down to EVM [[bytecode]] and deployed to the Ethereum blockchain for execution. They can be written in [[Solidity]] (a language library with similarities to [[C (programming language)|C]] and [[JavaScript]]), Serpent (similar to [[Python (programming language)|Python]]), LLL (a [[Low-level programming language|low-level]] [[Lisp]]-like language), and Mutan ([[Go (programming language)|Go]]-based, but deprecated).<ref name=AADCBTlanguages>{{cite book|last1=Asharaf|first1=S.|last2=Adarsh|first2=S.|date=2017|title=Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities|publisher=IGI Global|pages=71–72|isbn=9781522521938}}</ref> There is also a research-oriented language under development called Viper (a [[Strong and weak typing|strongly-typed]] [[Python (programming language)|Python]]-derived [[Recursive language|decidable language]]).<ref name=ETHNviper>{{cite web|last=Rivlin|first=Brianne|date=14 November 2016|title=Geth, Viper, and Wafr: New Ethereum Developments|publisher=ETHNews}}</ref>

In Ethereum all smart contracts are stored publicly on every node of the blockchain, which has trade-offs.<ref name="ibtimes.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/how-are-banks-actually-going-use-blockchains-smart-contracts-1539789|title=How are banks actually going to use blockchains and smart contracts?|last=Allison|first=Ian|date=25 January 2016|work=[[International Business Times]]|access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> The downside is that performance issues arise in that every node is calculating all the smart contracts in real time, resulting in lower speeds.<ref name="ibtimes.co.uk"/> Ethereum engineers have been working on [[Shard (database architecture)|sharding]] the calculations, but no solution had been detailed by early 2016.<ref name="ibtimes.co.uk"/> As of January 2016, the Ethereum protocol could process 25 transactions per second.<ref name="ibtimes.co.uk"/> In September 2016, Buterin presented proposals to increase scalability.<ref name="CDSCALING2">{{Cite web|last=Rizzo|first=Pete|url=http://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-creator-vitalik-buterin-scaling-devcon2/|title=Ethereum's Creator Proves Blockchain Scaling Vision is No Joke|date=2016-09-19|publisher=CoinDesk|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref>

=== Ether supply increase rate ===

The supply of Ether was projected to increase by 14.75% in 2017, gradually declining to 1.59% by 2065.<ref>{{cite web | title= Spreadsheet of Ether inflation rate | work = Presale | publisher = [[Google Docs, Sheets and Slides|Google Docs]] |  url = https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/150B9eytmjZ642tYD0jSdFZQHldmk7VG5Wm3KVctydpY/pubhtml  | accessdate = 2017-07-04 }}</ref>{{unreliable source inline|date=July 2017}} However, a new implementation of Ethereum named "Casper" based on [[Proof-of-stake|proof of stake]] rather than [[Proof-of-work system|proof of work]] is expected to reduce the inflation rate to between 0.5% to 2%.<ref>{{cite web | last = Hertig | first = Alyssa | title = Where's Casper? Inside Ethereum's Race to Reinvent its Blockchain | publisher = CoinDesk  | date = January 18, 2017 | url = http://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-casper-proof-stake-rewrite-rules-blockchain/  | accessdate = 2017-07-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Buterin | first = Vitalik | title = Once Casper comes out, ~0.5-2% annual seems feasible. Once we add partial tx fee burning and if fees go up, may go to 0 or lower  | publisher =[[Twitter]]  | date = June 27, 2017 | url = https://twitter.com/VitalikButerin/status/879858608091144193  | accessdate = 2017-07-04 }}</ref>

=== Proposed uses ===

Many uses have been proposed for Ethereum platform, including ones that are impossible or unfeasible.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Greenspan|first1=Gideon|title=Why Many Smart Contract Use Cases Are Simply Impossible - CoinDesk|url=http://www.coindesk.com/three-smart-contract-misconceptions/|work=CoinDesk|date=17 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-08-25/this-is-your-company-on-blockchain|title=This Is Your Company on Blockchain|last=|first=|date=|website=Bloomberg Businessweek|publisher=|access-date=2016-09-14}}</ref><ref name="NYTEVCRB"/>  Use cases proposals have included finance, the [[Internet of Things|internet-of-things]], [[farm-to-table]] produce, [[Smart grid|electricity sourcing and pricing]], and [[sports betting]].<ref name="NYTEVCRB"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cointelegraph.com/news/decentralized-autonomous-organizations-ethereum-sparks-up-googles-of-tomorrow|title=Decentralized Autonomous Organizations: Ethereum Sparks Up Googles of Tomorrow|last=Bordet|first=Julián|date=21 March 2016|website=The Cointelegraph|publisher=|access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref>

== Ecosystem ==

The projects listed in this section are not exhaustive and may be outdated.

=== Clients and wallets ===

* Geth — Client implementation in Go<ref name=AADCBTclients/>

* Jaxx — Web wallet<ref name="BTCNJAXX">{{cite web|url=https://news.bitcoin.com/jaxx-the-new-fleet-of-bitcoin-ethereum-wallets/|last=Redman|first=Jamie|date=13 February 2016|title=Jaxx: The New Fleet of Bitcoin & Ethereum Wallets|publisher=Saint Bitts LLC}}</ref>

* KeepKey — Hardware wallet<ref name="ETHNkeepkey">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnews.com/keepkey-hard-wallet-supports-ethereum|last=Silva|first=Los|date=23 November 2016|title=KeepKey Hard Wallet Supports Ethereum|publisher=ETHNews}}</ref>

* Ledger Nano S — Hardware wallet<ref name="CDledger">{{cite web|url=http://www.coindesk.com/ledger-blue-hardware-wallet-blockchain-smart-contracts/|last=Faife|first=Corin|date=26 November 2016|title=Ledger Launches Hardware Wallet for the Smart Contract Era|publisher=CoinDesk}}</ref>

* Mist — Desktop wallet<ref>{{cite web|url=https://themerkle.com/a-review-of-the-bests-ethereum-wallets/|title=A Review of The Best Ethereum Wallets|publisher=}}</ref>

* Parity — Client implementation in Rust<ref name=AADCBTclients/>

=== Decentralized applications ===

IMPORTANT, PLEASE READ BEFORE ADDING AN ENTRY:

* [[Digital signature]]s that ensure authenticity and proof of existence of documents: the [[Luxembourg Stock Exchange]] has developed such a system<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bourse.lu/blockchain-press-release|title=Luxembourg Stock Exchange introduces blockchain into reporting service|last=|first=|date=2016-10-18|website=|publisher=|access-date=2016-11-04}}</ref>

* Interactive grids for the [[Internet of Things|Internet of Things (IoT)]], such as verification for physical assets utilizing [[Bluetooth low energy]] and [[near field communication]] chips.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nasdaq.com/article/chronicled-introduces-new-ethereum-powered-iot-open-registry-cm670401|title=Chronicled Introduces New Ethereum-Powered IoT Open Registry|last=Young|first=Joseph|date=|work=|publisher=Nasdaq|access-date=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.econotimes.com/Ethcore-Announces-Pre-release-Of-Its-Blockchain-Technology-Suite-Parity-159339|title=Ethcore Announces Pre-release Of Its Blockchain Technology Suite ‘Parity’|date=11 February 2016|website=EconoTimes|accessdate=24 March 2016}}</ref> ''Slock.It'' is developing [[smart lock]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ethereum-based-slock-reveals-first-ever-lock-opened-money-1527014|title=Ethereum-based Slock.it reveals first ever lock opened with money|last=Allison|first=Ian|work=International Business Times UK}}</ref>

* Digital tokens [[Fixed exchange-rate system|pegged]] to [[Fiat money|fiat currencies]]: ''Decentralized Capital.''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/decentralized-capital-issuing-fiat-backed-digital-assets-ethereum-blockchain-1580763|title=Decentralized Capital issuing fiat-backed digital assets on the Ethereum blockchain|last=Allison|first=Ian|date=12 September 2016|website=International Business Times|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref> Spanish bank [[Santander Bank|Santander]] is also involved in such a project<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://cointelegraph.com/news/santander-confirms-fiat-backed-token-project-on-ethereum-blockchain|title=Santander Confirms Fiat-backed Token Project on Ethereum Blockchain|newspaper=CoinTelegraph|access-date=2017-01-15}}</ref>

* Digital tokens [[Fixed exchange-rate system|pegged]] to [[gold]]: ''Digix''<ref name="forbes20160423" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://themerkle.com/digixdao-dgd-assets-to-be-listed-on-openledger/|title=DigixDAO DGD Assets To Be Listed on OpenLedger|last=Buntinx|first=JP|date=28 April 2016|publisher=The Merkle|accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref>

* Improved [[digital rights management]] for music: [[Imogen Heap]] used the technology<ref name="Allison-4-Oct-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/imogen-heap-shows-how-music-smart-contracts-work-using-ethereum-1522331|title=Imogen Heap shows how smart music contracts work using Ethereum|last=Allison|first=Ian|date=4 October 2015|website=International Business Times|accessdate=24 March 2016}}</ref>

* Platforms for [[prediction market]]s: ''[[Augur (software)|Augur]], Gnosis''<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-prediction-market-service-takes-first-steps-beta-launch/|title=Ethereum Prediction Market Service Takes First Steps With Beta Launch - CoinDesk|date=2016-08-17|newspaper=CoinDesk|access-date=2017-02-06|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://cointelegraph.com/news/ico-roundup-2017-by-cointelegraph-cashing-in-on-blockchain-apps-mainstream-year|title=ICO Roundup 2017 by Cointelegraph: Cashing In On Blockchain Apps’ Mainstream Year|newspaper=CoinTelegraph|access-date=2017-02-06|language=en}}</ref>

* Platforms for [[crowdfunding]]: ''the DAO'' (short for [[decentralized autonomous organization]])<ref name="sut2016051">{{cite news |last=Rennie|first=Ellie |url=http://www.swinburne.edu.au/news/latest-news/2016/05/the-radical-dao-experiment.php |title=The radical DAO experiment |work=Swinburne News |publisher=Swinburne University of Technology |date=12 May 2016 |accessdate=12 May 2016 |quote=''When it reaches the end of the funding phase on 28 May, it will begin contracting blockchain-based start-ups to create innovative technologies. The extraordinary thing about The DAO is that no single entity owns it, and it has no conventional management structure or board of directors.'' }}</ref><ref name="ibt20160430">{{cite news |last=Allison|first=Ian |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ethereum-reinvents-companies-launch-dao-1557576 |title=Ethereum reinvents companies with launch of The DAO |work=[[International Business Times]] |date=30 April 2016 |accessdate=1 May 2016 }}</ref><ref name=WSJDAOCC/>

* Social media platforms with economic incentives: ''Backfeed,''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geektime.com/2015/08/19/backfeed-wants-to-decentralize-the-internet-and-help-you-earn-what-you-deserve/|title=Backfeed wants to decentralize the Internet and help you earn what you deserve|first=Simona |last=Weinglass|publisher=Geektime.com|date=19 August 2015|accessdate=24 March 2016}}</ref> ''Akasha''<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.investopedia.com/news/new-social-network-powered-ethereum-technology/|title=This New Social Network is Powered by Ethereum Technology|last=CFA|first=Adam Hayes,|date=2017-02-03|newspaper=Investopedia|access-date=2017-02-06|language=en-US}}</ref>

* Decentralized marketplaces for physical items, financial products or energy: ''FreeMyVunk,''<ref>{{cite web|title=Game-changers FreeMyVunk and Digix allow video gamers to trade virtual assets for physical gold|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/game-changers-freemyvunk-digix-allow-video-gamers-trade-virtual-assets-physical-gold-1534436|last=Allison|first=Ian|website=International Business Times|date=22 December 2015|accessdate=24 March 2016}}</ref> ''Etheropt,''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsbtc.com/2016/03/30/decentralized-options-exchange-etheropt-uses-automated-ethereum-smart-contract/#ether|title=Decentralized Options Exchange Etheropt Uses Automated Ethereum Smart Contract}}</ref> ''TransActive Grid''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2079334-blockchain-based-microgrid-gives-power-to-consumers-in-new-york/|title=Blockchain-based microgrid gives power to consumers in New York|last=Rutkin|first=Aviva|date=2 March 2016|website=New Scientist|accessdate=24 March 2016}}</ref>

* Mobile payments services for foreign workers: ''Everex''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.financemagnates.com/cryptocurrency/education-center-2/everex-helps-migrant-workers-send-remittance-back-myanmar-via-ethereum/|title=Everex Helps Migrant Workers Send Remittance Back to Myanmar via Ethereum|last=Mizrahi|first=Avi|date=2016-12-01|website=Finance Magnates|publisher=|access-date=2016-12-14}}</ref>

* Authenticate users and managing the billing process through smart contracts: RWE car charging<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.coindesk.com/german-utility-company-turns-to-blockchain-amid-shifting-energy-landscape/|title=Why a German Power Company is Using Ethereum to Test Blockchain Car Charging|last=Higgins|first=Stan|date=|work=CoinDesk|access-date=2017-05-02|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=}}</ref>

* Secure [[Identity management system|identity systems]] for the Internet: ''uPort''<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.econotimes.com/ConsenSys-uPort-wins-International-Blockchain-Summit-315396|title=ConsenSys uPort wins International Blockchain Summit - EconoTimes|last=EconoTimes|newspaper=EconoTimes|access-date=2017-02-06|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/consensys-uport-scoops-first-prize-international-blockchain-summit-demo-day-1582852|title=ConsenSys uPort scoops first prize in International Blockchain Summit Demo Day|last=Allison|first=Ian|date=2016-09-23|newspaper=International Business Times UK|access-date=2017-02-06}}</ref>

=== Enterprise software ===

Ethereum is being tested by [[enterprise software]] companies for various applications. Interested parties include [[Microsoft]], [[IBM]], [[JPMorgan Chase]],<ref name="NYTEVCRB"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://rethink-iot.com/2016/04/01/hyperledger-blockchain-code-almost-comes-together-for-iot/ |title=Hyperledger blockchain code almost comes together for IoT |publisher=Rethink Research|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref> [[Deloitte]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/deloitte-build-ethereum-based-digital-bank-new-york-citys-consensys-1557864|title=Deloitte to build Ethereum-based 'digital bank' with New York City's ConsenSys|last=Allison|first=Ian|date=3 May 2016|work=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref> [[R3 (company)|R3]],<ref name="ibt20160120">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/r3-connects-11-banks-distributed-ledger-using-ethereum-microsoft-azure-1539044|title=R3 connects 11 banks to distributed ledger using Ethereum and Microsoft Azure|date=20 January 2016|work=International Business Times|last1=Allison|first1=Ian|accessdate=23 February 2016}}</ref> [[Innovate UK]] (cross-border payments prototype).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coindesk.com/uk-government-awards-250000-develop-cross-border-blockchain-prototype/|title=UK Government Awards £248k for Ethereum Prototype|work=CoinDesk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gtr.rcuk.ac.uk/projects?ref=720735|title=Settlement using blockchain to Automate Foreign Exchange in a Regulated environment (SAFER)|work=[[Innovate UK]]}}</ref>

==== Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA) ====

In March 2017, various blockchain start-ups, research groups, and Fortune 500 companies announced the creation of the Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA) with 30 founding members.<ref name="NYTEEA">{{Cite news|last=Popper|first=Nathaniel|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/27/business/dealbook/ethereum-alliance-business-banking-security.html|title=Business Giants to Announce Creation of a Computing System Based on Ethereum|date=2017-02-27|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref>  

By May, the nonprofit organization had 116 enterprise members — including [[ConsenSys]], [[Cornell University#Research|Cornell University's research group]], [[Toyota_Group|Toyota Research Institute]], [[Samsung SDS]], [[Microsoft]], [[Intel]], [[J.P. Morgan]], [[Merck KGaA]], [[Depository Trust %26 Clearing Corporation|DTCC]], [[Deloitte]], [[Accenture]], [[Banco Santander]], [[BNY Mellon]], [[ING Group|ING]], and [[National Bank of Canada]].<ref name="IEEEEEA">{{Cite web|last=Peck|first=Morgan|url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/networks/enterprise-ethereum-alliance-launches|title=Corporate Titans Unite to Build an Enterprise Version of the Ethereum Blockchain|date=2017-03-02|publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref name="EEA022217">{{Cite press release|url=https://entethalliance.org/enterprise-ethereum-alliance-release-05-19-2017.pdf|title=Enterprise Ethereum Alliance expands dramatically announcing 86 new members|date=2017-05-19|publisher=Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA)|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref name="FORBESEEA">{{Cite web|last=Shin|first=Laura|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2017/05/22/ethereum-enterprise-alliance-adds-86-new-members-including-dtcc-state-street-and-infosys-and/#7de2037e8ff2|title=Ethereum Enterprise Alliance Adds 86 New Members Including DTCC, State Street And Infosys|date=2017-05-22|publisher=Forbes|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref>  

The purpose of the EEA is to coordinate the engineering of an open-source reference standard and private "permissioned" version of the Ethereum blockchain that can address the common interests of enterprises in banking, management, consulting, automotive, pharmaceutical, health, technology, mobile, entertainment, and other industries, while working with developers from the Ethereum ecosystem. Certain members of the alliance have also indicated a desire to investigate and collaborate on hybrid architectures to potentially anchor private blockchains to the public Ethereum blockchain in the future, although concerns remain over the security, compliance, and regulations involved in bridging such permissioned and "permissionless" blockchains.<ref name="NYTEEA"/>

By July 2017, there were over 150 members in the alliance, including recent additions [[MasterCard]], [[Cisco Systems]], and [[Scotiabank]].<ref>[https://www.inc.com/brian-d-evans/the-enterprise-ethereum-alliance-just-got-a-whole-.html https://www.inc.com/brian-d-evans/the-enterprise-ethereum-alliance-just-got-a-whole-.html]</ref> (Mastercard wanted their name excluded from the press release.<ref>https://www.ethnews.com/mastercard-cisco-and-others-join-the-enterprise-ethereum-alliance</ref>)

==== Permissioned ledgers ====

Ethereum is used and being investigated as a [[Blockchain (database)#Openness|permissioned blockchain]] in various projects.

* [[JPMorgan Chase|J.P. Morgan Chase]] is developing a blockchain, atop Ethereum. The system, dubbed "Quorum," is designed to toe the line between private and public in the realm of shuffling derivatives and payments. The idea is to satisfy regulators who need seamless access to financial goings-on, while protecting the privacy of parties that don’t wish to reveal their identities nor the details of their transactions to the general public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2016/10/04/jp-morgan-chase-blockchain-ethereum-quorum/|title=Why J.P. Morgan Chase Is Building a Blockchain on Ethereum|last=Hacket|first=Robert|date=|website=Fortune|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>

* [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] has announced that it has built a Clearing and Settlement Mechanism (CSM) based on the Ethereum distributed ledger and smart contract platform.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://emerald-platform.gitlab.io/static/emeraldTechnicalPaper.pdf|title=Proving Ethereum for the Clearing Use Case|last=|first=|date=|work=|access-date=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/rbs-builds-ethereum-based-distributed-clearing-house-1589897|title=Blockchain: RBS builds Ethereum-based distributed clearing house|last=Allison|first=Ian|date=7 December 2016|website=IB Times|publisher=|access-date= 8 May 2017}}</ref>

== Criticism ==

A finance blogger on FT Alphaville has criticised the main Ethereum public blockchain and the "ether" cryptocurrency for enabling [[Ponzi scheme|Ponzi schemes]] and other forms of investment fraud.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kaminska|first1=Izabella|title=It's not a ponzi, it's a smart ponzi|url=https://ftalphaville.ft.com/2017/06/01/2189634/its-not-just-a-ponzi-its-a-smart-ponzi/?mhq5j=e2|publisher=Financial Times - Alphaville|date=1 June 2017}}</ref> The criticism was based on a paper from the [[University of Cagliari]], which placed the number of Ethereum smart contracts which facilitate Ponzi schemes at nearly 10% of 1384  smart contracts examined. However, it also estimated that only 0.05% of the transactions on the network were related to such contracts.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bartoletti, Carta et al.|title=Dissecting Ponzi schemes on Ethereum: identification, analysis, and impact|url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.03779.pdf|accessdate=30 July 2017|publisher=Universita di Cagliari}}</ref>

{{Cryptocurrencies}}

[[Category:Blockchains]]

[[Category:Cross-platform software]]

[[Category:Cryptocurrencies]]

[[Category:2015 software]]