Ethereum

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Ethereum
Logo des Ethereum Projekts, zum ersten Mal 2014 verwendet
Logo des Ethereum Projekts, zum ersten Mal 2014 verwendet
Erstveröffentlichung 30. Juli 2017
Codequelle {{#property:P1324}}
Entwicklungsstatus Aktiv
Geschrieben in C++, Go, Rust
Betriebssystem(e) Clients erhältlich für Linux, Windows, macOS, POSIX, Raspbian
Typ Dezentrales Rechnen
Lizenz GPLv3, LGPLv3[1]
Website www.ethereum.org

Ethereum ist eine open-source, öffentliche, blockchain-basierte dezentrale Rechenplattform, die als Hauptfunktion das Aufsetzen intelligenter Verträge ("smart contracts") ermöglicht.[2] Es stellt eine VM zur Verfügung, die Turing-complete ist und Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) genannt wird. Diese ist in der Lage Skripte auszuführen, die über ein international verteiltes Netzwerk an öffentlichen Knoten geschickt werden. Ethereum stellt ebenso eine Kryptowährung bereit, die "ether" genannt wird. Diese kann zwischen Benutzerkonten ausgetauscht werden und dient auch als Entlohnung für Knoten von Teilnehmern, die diese für Berechnungen bereit stellen. "Gas", ein interner Mechanismus für Transaktions-Gebühren-Berechnungen, wird benutzt um Spam zu bekämpfen und dem Netzwerk Ressourcen zur Verfügung zu stellen.[2][3]

Ethereum wurde Ende 2013 von Vitalik Buterin vorgeschlagen, einem Programmierer und Wissenschaftler zum Thema Kryptowährungen. Die Entwicklung wurde online durch eine Crowdfunding-Aktion angestoßen, die zwischen Juli und August 2014 lief.[4] Live ging das System am 30. Juli 2015.[5]

2016 wurde Ethereum in zwei Blockchains aufgespalten, dies hatte als Ursache den Kollaps des Projekts The DAO, dadurch entstand Ethereum Classic.[6][7][8]

Geschichte

Herkunft

Ethereum wurde ursprünglich von Vitalik Buterin Ende 2013 in einem Entwurf festgehalten,[9] einem Programmierer von Bitcoin. Hauptziel darin war das Entwickeln dezentraler Anwendungen.[10][11] Buterins Hauptargument war, Bitcoin brauche eine eigene Skriptsprache, um App-Entwicklungen umsetzen zu können. Da keine Einigung erzielt werden konnte, schlug er die Entwicklung einer komplett neuen Plattform mit einer einfacher zu benutzenden Skriptsprache vor.[12]:88

Zur Zeit der öffentlichen Bekanntmachung im Januar 2014, bestand das Kernentwickler-Team aus Vitalik Buterin, Mihai Alisie, Anthony Di Iorio und Charles Hoskinson.[13] Die offizielle Entwicklung des Ethereum-Software-Projekts fand im Frühjahr 2014 durch eine Schweizer Firma statt, die Ethereum Switzerland GmbH (EthSuisse).[14][15] Kurz darauf im Anschluss wurde eine nicht-kommerzielle Schweizer Stiftung gegründet, die Stiftung Ethereum. Finanziell gestützt wurde die Entwicklung durch einen öffentlichen Online-Crowdsale zwischen Juli und August 2014. Die Teilnehmer mussten die ersten "Ether" mit einer anderen Kryptowärhung kaufen: Bitcoin.[4] Während auf der einen Seite bereits früh die technischen Innovationen von Ethereum gepriesen wurden, gab es ebenso kritische Stimmen bezüglich Sicherheit und Skalierbarkeit des Systems.[10]

Meilensteine

Eine Handvoll Prototypen der Ethereum-Plattform wurde durch die Stiftung entwickelt und zwar als Teil einer Proof-of-Concept-Serie. Der letzte dieser Prototypen gipfelte in einem öffentlichen Beta-Release, genannt "Olympic".[16][17] Das Olympic-Netzwerk bot Nutzern für das Fehlerfinden durch Software-Lasttests eine Art Kopfgeld-Belohnung von 25.000 "Ether", um die Grenzen der Ethereum-Blockchain zu erforschen.

Direkt nach "Olympic" begann die Stiftung damit die vorläufig letzte experimentelle Version der Ethereum-Plattform zu veröffentlichen, genannt "Frontier". Das war im Juli 2015.[18][19] Ethereum durchlief seit dem offiziellen Start eine Reihe geplanter Protokoll-Updates, diese werden "Milestones" (Meilensteine) genannt. Diese Meilensteine verändern stark die zugrundeliegende Funktionalität und/oder auch immer wieder das System für die Bonus-Ausschüttungen der Plattform selbst.[20][21]

Der aktuelle Meilenstein, genannt "Homestead" (Heimstätte), wird als stabile Software betrachtet.[22][23] Dieser beinhaltet Verbesserungen zur Ausführungen der Transaktionen, der Preisgestaltung von "gas", sowie der Sicherheit.[24][22][25] Mindestens zwei Protokoll-Updates sind für die Zukunft geplant, in diesem Fall "Metropolis" und "Serenity". "Metropolis" soll zum einen die Komplexität der EVM reduzieren und zum anderen mehr Flexibilität für Entwickler intelligenter Verträge (smart contracts) bieten.[21] Der Schritt in Richtung "Serenity" ist noch nicht aus der Konzeptionsphase draußen, dieser Meilenstein soll jedoch eine fundamentale Änderung für den Konsens-Algorithmus von Ethereum sicherstellen, damit eine Verschiebung weg vom Minen mit Hardware (proof-of-work) hin zum Minen mit Software (virtual mining) (proof-of-stake) durchgeführt werden kann.[21][26] Weitere große Verbesserungen soll es langfristig im Bereich der Skalierbarkeit geben, hier speziell beim Sharding.[27][28]

Version Code-Name Datum der Veröffentlichung
Old version, no longer supported: 0 "Olympic" Mai 2015[29]
Old version, no longer supported: 1 "Frontier" 30. Juli 2015[29]
Current stable version: 2 "Homestead" 14. März 2016[29]
Future release: 3 "Metropolis" N.V.[29]
Future release: 4 "Serenity" N.V.[29]
Legend:
Old version
Older version, still supported
Latest version
Latest preview version
Future release

Der DAO-Hart-Fork

In 2016 a decentralized autonomous organization called The DAO, a set of smart contracts developed on the platform, raised a record US$150 million in a crowdsale to fund the project.[30] The DAO was exploited in June when US$50 million in ether were claimed by an anonymous entity.[31][32] The event sparked a debate in the crypto-community about whether Ethereum should perform a contentious "hard fork" to reappropriate the stolen funds.[33] As a result of the dispute, the network split in two, Ethereum (the subject of this article) and Ethereum Classic. The hard fork created a rivalry between the two networks.[34]

After the initial hard fork, Ethereum subsequently forked two times in the fourth quarter of 2016 to deal with other attacks.[35] By the end of November 2016, Ethereum had increased its DDoS protection, de-bloated the blockchain, and thwarted further spam attacks by hackers.[25]

Architecture

Ether

Ether
Stückelung
Symbol Ξ or ETH
Demographie
Benutzer Worldwide
Issuance
Currency type Cryptocurrency

The value token of the Ethereum blockchain is called ether. It is listed under the code ETH and traded on cryptocurrency exchanges. It is also used to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the Ethereum network.[36]

Tokens can be volatile per circumstances, such as ether's plunge from $21.50 to $8 when The DAO was hacked on 17 June 2016.[32] As of June 2017, the value of ether had risen to more than $400, a 5,000% rise since the beginning of the year.[37] Volatility continued, however, including a "flash crash" triggered by a large sell order on one exchange which briefly dropped the price to $0.10, after which it recovered to more than $300.[38]

Ethereum Virtual Machine

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)[39][40] is the runtime environment for smart contracts in Ethereum. The formal definition of the EVM is specified in the Ethereum Yellow Paper by Gavin Wood.[41][42] It is sandboxed and also completely isolated from the network, filesystem or other processes of the host computer system. Every Ethereum node in the network runs an EVM implementation and executes the same instructions. Ethereum Virtual Machines have been implemented in C++, Go, Haskell, Java, Python, Ruby, Rust, and WebAssembly (currently under development).[43][44][45]

Smart contracts

Main article: Smart contract

Smart contracts are deterministic exchange mechanisms controlled by digital means that can carry out the direct transaction of value between untrusted agents.[46] They can be used to facilitate, verify, and enforce the negotiation or performance of economically-laden procedural instructions and potentially circumvent censorship, collusion, and counter-party risk. In Ethereum, smart contracts are treated as autonomous scripts or stateful decentralized applications that are stored in the Ethereum blockchain for later execution by the EVM. Instructions embedded in Ethereum contracts are paid for in ether (or more technically "gas") and can be implemented in a variety of Turing complete scripting languages.[2][47]

Contracts on the public blockchain

As the contracts can be public, it opens up the possibility to prove functionality, e.g. self-contained provably fair casinos.[48]

One issue related to using smart contracts on a public blockchain is that bugs, including security holes, are visible to all but cannot be fixed quickly.[49] One example of this is the 17 June 2016 attack on The DAO, which could not be quickly stopped or reversed.[31]

There is ongoing research on how to use formal verification to express and prove non-trivial properties. A Microsoft Research report noted that writing solid smart contracts can be extremely difficult in practice, using The DAO hack to illustrate this problem. The report discussed tools that Microsoft had developed for verifying contracts, and noted that a large-scale analysis of published contracts is likely to uncover widespread vulnerabilities. The report also stated that it is possible to verify the equivalence of a Solidity program and the EVM code.[50]

Programming languages

Main article: Solidity

Smart contracts are high-level programming abstractions that are compiled down to EVM bytecode and deployed to the Ethereum blockchain for execution. They can be written in Solidity (a language library with similarities to C and JavaScript), Serpent (similar to Python), LLL (a low-level Lisp-like language), and Mutan (Go-based, but deprecated).[51] There is also a research-oriented language under development called Viper (a strongly-typed Python-derived decidable language).[52]

Performance

In Ethereum all smart contracts are stored publicly on every node of the blockchain, which has trade-offs.[53] The downside is that performance issues arise in that every node is calculating all the smart contracts in real time, resulting in lower speeds.[53] Ethereum engineers have been working on sharding the calculations, but no solution had been detailed by early 2016.[53] As of January 2016, the Ethereum protocol could process 25 transactions per second.[53] In September 2016, Buterin presented proposals to increase scalability.[28]

Ether supply increase rate

The supply of Ether was projected to increase by 14.75% in 2017, gradually declining to 1.59% by 2065.[54][unreliable source?] However, a new implementation of Ethereum named "Casper" based on proof of stake rather than proof of work is expected to reduce the inflation rate to between 0.5% to 2%.[55][56]

Proposed uses

Many uses have been proposed for Ethereum platform, including ones that are impossible or unfeasible.[57][58][36] Use cases proposals have included finance, the internet-of-things, farm-to-table produce, electricity sourcing and pricing, and sports betting.[36][59]

Ecosystem

The projects listed in this section are not exhaustive and may be outdated.

Clients and wallets

  • Geth — Client implementation in Go[43]
  • Jaxx — Web wallet[60]
  • KeepKey — Hardware wallet[61]
  • Ledger Nano S — Hardware wallet[62]
  • Mist — Desktop wallet[63]
  • Parity — Client implementation in Rust[43]

Decentralized applications

Enterprise software

Ethereum is being tested by enterprise software companies for various applications. Interested parties include Microsoft, IBM, JPMorgan Chase,[36][85] Deloitte,[86] R3,[87] Innovate UK (cross-border payments prototype).[88][89]

Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA)

In March 2017, various blockchain start-ups, research groups, and Fortune 500 companies announced the creation of the Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA) with 30 founding members.[90] By May, the nonprofit organization had 116 enterprise members — including ConsenSys, Cornell University's research group, Toyota Research Institute, Samsung SDS, Microsoft, Intel, J.P. Morgan, Merck KGaA, DTCC, Deloitte, Accenture, Banco Santander, BNY Mellon, ING, and National Bank of Canada.[91][92][93]

The purpose of the EEA is to coordinate the engineering of an open-source reference standard and private "permissioned" version of the Ethereum blockchain that can address the common interests of enterprises in banking, management, consulting, automotive, pharmaceutical, health, technology, mobile, entertainment, and other industries, while working with developers from the Ethereum ecosystem. Certain members of the alliance have also indicated a desire to investigate and collaborate on hybrid architectures to potentially anchor private blockchains to the public Ethereum blockchain in the future, although concerns remain over the security, compliance, and regulations involved in bridging such permissioned and "permissionless" blockchains.[90]

By July 2017, there were over 150 members in the alliance, including recent additions MasterCard, Cisco Systems, and Scotiabank.[94] (Mastercard wanted their name excluded from the press release.[95])

Permissioned ledgers

Ethereum is used and being investigated as a permissioned blockchain in various projects.

  • J.P. Morgan Chase is developing a blockchain, atop Ethereum. The system, dubbed "Quorum," is designed to toe the line between private and public in the realm of shuffling derivatives and payments. The idea is to satisfy regulators who need seamless access to financial goings-on, while protecting the privacy of parties that don’t wish to reveal their identities nor the details of their transactions to the general public.[96]
  • Royal Bank of Scotland has announced that it has built a Clearing and Settlement Mechanism (CSM) based on the Ethereum distributed ledger and smart contract platform.[97][98]

Criticism

A finance blogger on FT Alphaville has criticised the main Ethereum public blockchain and the "ether" cryptocurrency for enabling Ponzi schemes and other forms of investment fraud.[99] The criticism was based on a paper from the University of Cagliari, which placed the number of Ethereum smart contracts which facilitate Ponzi schemes at nearly 10% of 1384 smart contracts examined. However, it also estimated that only 0.05% of the transactions on the network were related to such contracts.[100]

References

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External links

Media related to [[commons:Category:{{#property:P373}}|Ethereum]] at Wikimedia Commons

  1. ↑ Ethereum Go GitHub repository.
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Understanding Ethereum (Report). CoinDesk. 24 June 2016. 
  3. ↑ ConsenSys (2016-06-23). "Ethereum, Gas, Fuel, & Fees". ConsenSys Media. Retrieved 2017-01-15. 
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 Aitken, Roger (23 April 2016). "Digital Gold 'Done Right' With DigixDAO Crypto-Trading On OpenLedger". Forbes. Retrieved 28 April 2016. 
  5. ↑ etherchain.org: Accounts - etherchain.org - The ethereum blockchain explorer (en)
  6. ↑ Cecille De Jesus: The DAO Heist Undone: 97% of ETH Holders Vote for the Hard Fork. Futurism, LLC.. 19 July 2016.
  7. ↑ Andrew Quentson: Miners Vote Overwhelmingly in Support of Ethereum's Hardfork. Cryptocoinnews. 17 July 2016.
  8. ↑ Miles Bradley: CoinDesk Research: Ethereum Hard Fork Had Little Impact on Sentiment. Coindesk. 17 November 2016.
  9. ↑ White Paper · ethereum/wiki Wiki · GitHub.
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Klint Finley: Out in the Open: Teenage Hacker Transforms Web Into One Giant Bitcoin Network. 27 January 2014. Abgerufen am 21 March 2016.
  11. ↑ Nathan Schneider: Code your own utopia: Meet Ethereum, bitcoin's most ambitious successor. Al Jazeera. 7 April 2014. Abgerufen am 21 February 2016.
  12. ↑ Tapscott, Don; Tapscott, Alex (2016-05-07). The Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business, and the World. Portfolio. ISBN 978-0670069972. 
  13. ↑ Vitalik Buterin: Ethereum: Now Going Public. 23 January 2014.
  14. ↑ Schmid, Valentin (10 May 2014). "The Entrepreneur: Joe Lubin, COO of Ethereum". Epoch Times. Retrieved 31 March 2016. 
  15. ↑ Company Overview of Ethereum Switzerland GmbH. Bloomberg. 20. August 2016. Archiviert vom Original am 20. August 2016. Abgerufen am 20. August 2016: „The company was founded in 2014 and is based in Baar, Switzerland.“
  16. ↑ Vitalik Buterin: Olympic: Frontier Pre-Release. Ethereum Foundation. 9. Mai 2015.
  17. ↑ Hans Lombardo: Ethereum Debuts “eπ” Ethereum-on-Raspberry Pi as Olympic Whirs before Frontier Release. Allcoinsnews. 17. Mai 2015.
  18. ↑ Vinay Gupta: Getting to the Frontier. Ethereum Foundation. 12. März 2015.
  19. ↑ Paul Vigna: BitBeat: Ethereum Opens Its ‘Frontier’ for Business. The Wall Street Journal. 31. Juli 2015.
  20. ↑ Vinay Gupta: The Ethereum Launch Process. Ethereum Foundation. 3. März 2015.
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  22. ↑ 22,0 22,1 Ethereum Homestead Documentation: The Homestead Release. Ethereum Foundation. n.d..
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  24. ↑ Jeffrey Wilcke: Homestead Release. Ethereum Foundation. 29. Februar 2016.
  25. ↑ 25,0 25,1 Hertig, Alyssa (2016-11-22). "Ethereum's Fourth Blockchain Fork: So Far, So Good". CoinDesk. Retrieved 2017-06-05. 
  26. ↑ Alyssa Hertig: Where's Casper? Inside Ethereum's Race to Reinvent its Blockchain. CoinDesk. 18. Januar 2017.
  27. ↑ Alyssa Hertig: How Will Ethereum Scale?. CoinDesk. n.d..
  28. ↑ 28,0 28,1 Pete Rizzo: Ethereum's Creator Proves Blockchain Scaling Vision is No Joke. CoinDesk. 19. September 2016.
  29. ↑ 29,0 29,1 29,2 29,3 29,4 Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9781522521938. 
  30. ↑ 30,0 30,1 Vigna, Paul (16 May 2016). "Chiefless Company Rakes In More than $100 Million". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 May 2017. 
  31. ↑ 31,0 31,1 Popper, Nathaniel (18 June 2016). "Hacker May Have Taken $50 Million From Cybercurrency Project". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 May 2017. 
  32. ↑ 32,0 32,1 Rob Price: Digital Currency Ethereum is Cratering Amid Claims of a $50 Million Hack. Business Insider. 17 June 2016.
  33. ↑ Morgan Peck: "Hard Fork" Coming to Restore Ethereum Funds to Investors of Hacked DAO. IEEE. 19 July 2016.
  34. ↑ Alyssa Hertig: Ethereum's Two Ethereums Explained. CoinDesk. 28 July 2016.
  35. ↑ Jamie Redman: Ethereum to Hard Fork Two More Times Following Recent Attacks. Bitcoin.com. 14 October 2016.
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  37. ↑ Kharpal, Arjun (12 June 2017). "Ethereum hits another record high after bitcoin and is now up over 5,000% since the start of the year". CNBC. Retrieved 24 June 2017. 
  38. ↑ Kharpal, Arjun (22 June 2017). "Ethereum briefly crashed from $319 to 10 cents in seconds on one exchange after 'multimillion dollar' trade". CNBC. Retrieved 24 June 2017. 
  39. ↑ What is Ethereum? — Ethereum Homestead 0.1 documentation.
  40. ↑ Dannen, Chris (2017). "The EVM". Introducing Ethereum and Solidity: Foundations of Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Programming for Beginners. Apress. pp. 47–67. ISBN 9781484225356. 
  41. ↑ Ethereum Yellow Paper by Gavin Wood
  42. ↑ Triantafyllidis, Nikolaos Petros (19 February 2016). "The Ethereum Project: Ethereum History". Developing an Ethereum Blockchain Application (Report). University of Amsterdam. p. 20. 
  43. ↑ 43,0 43,1 43,2 Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). "Appendix 1: Ethereum Clients". Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. p. 98. ISBN 9781522521938. 
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  45. ↑ Ethereum Client Implementations - EntEthAlliance - Confluence.
  46. ↑ Nick Szabo: The Idea of Smart Contracts. 1997.
  47. ↑ Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). "Bridging the Blockchain Knowledge Gap". Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. pp. 1–20. ISBN 9781522521938. 
  48. ↑ Piasecki, Piotr J. (2016). "Gaming Self-Contained Provably Fair Smart Contract Casinos". Ledger. 1: 99–110. doi:10.5195/ledger.2016.29. 
  49. ↑ M. Peck: Ethereum's $150-Million Blockchain-Powered Fund Opens Just as Researchers Call For a Halt. In: IEEE Spectrum. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 28 May 2016.
  50. ↑ Short Paper: Formal Verification of Smart Contracts. Microsoft. Abgerufen am 25 August 2016.
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  52. ↑ Fehler beim Aufruf der Vorlage:cite web: Die Parameter url und title müssen vorhanden sein.Brianne Rivlin: ETHNews. 14 November 2016.
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  54. ↑ Spreadsheet of Ether inflation rate. In: Presale. Google Docs. Abgerufen am 4. Juli 2017.
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  64. ↑ Luxembourg Stock Exchange introduces blockchain into reporting service. 18. Oktober 2016.
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  66. ↑ Ethcore Announces Pre-release Of Its Blockchain Technology Suite ‘Parity’. 11 February 2016. Abgerufen am 24 March 2016.
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  80. ↑ Aviva Rutkin: Blockchain-based microgrid gives power to consumers in New York. 2 March 2016. Abgerufen am 24 March 2016.
  81. ↑ Avi Mizrahi: Everex Helps Migrant Workers Send Remittance Back to Myanmar via Ethereum. 1. Dezember 2016.
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  86. ↑ Ian Allison: Deloitte to build Ethereum-based 'digital bank' with New York City's ConsenSys. In: International Business Times. 3 May 2016.
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  91. ↑ Morgan Peck: Corporate Titans Unite to Build an Enterprise Version of the Ethereum Blockchain. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 2. März 2017.
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  93. ↑ Laura Shin: Ethereum Enterprise Alliance Adds 86 New Members Including DTCC, State Street And Infosys. Forbes. 22. Mai 2017.
  94. ↑ https://www.inc.com/brian-d-evans/the-enterprise-ethereum-alliance-just-got-a-whole-.html
  95. ↑ https://www.ethnews.com/mastercard-cisco-and-others-join-the-enterprise-ethereum-alliance
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  97. ↑ "Proving Ethereum for the Clearing Use Case" (PDF). 
  98. ↑ Ian Allison: Blockchain: RBS builds Ethereum-based distributed clearing house. 7 December 2016.
  99. ↑ Kaminska, Izabella (1 June 2017). "It's not a ponzi, it's a smart ponzi". Financial Times - Alphaville. 
  100. ↑ Bartoletti, Carta; et al. "Dissecting Ponzi schemes on Ethereum: identification, analysis, and impact" (PDF). Universita di Cagliari. Retrieved 30 July 2017. 
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