Non-fungible token

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Ein non-fungible token (NFT) ist eine einzigartige Dateneinheit, die in einer Blockchain gespeichert werden kann. Gleichzeitig gilt es als Zertifikat eines digitalen (Anlage-)Objekts, das nicht verändert werden kann.[1] NFTs, das können Photos sein, Videos, Audio, sowie viele weitere digitale Dateitypen. Der Zugriff auf die Originaldatei ist jedoch nicht beschränkt auf den Käufer eines NFT. Während Kopien von NFTs von allen erworben werden können, liegt der Beweis des Besitzes fest in einer Blockchain geschrieben. Dieser Beweis ist nicht gleichzusetzen mit einem Copyright.

Im Jahr 2020 verdreifachte sich der Markt für NFTs, auf über 250 Millionen US-Dollar.[2] Während des ersten Quartals 2021, erzielte der Verkauf von NFTs über 2 Milliarden US-Dollar[3]

Beschreibung

Ein non-fungible token (NFT) ist eine Dateneinheit, welche in einer Blockchain gespeichert ist und verkauft und mit dem gehandelt werden kann.Das NFT kann mit einem speziellen digitalen oder physischen Objekt verbunden sein (Datei, Skulptur, etc.) und die Lizenz zur Nutzung von diesem zu einem speziellen Zweck.[4] NFTs (und die damit aosszierten Lizensen zur Nutzung, zum Kopieren oder zum Anzeigen des darunterliegenden Asset) kann auf digitalen Märkten gehandelt und verkauft werden.[5]

NFTs funktionieren wie kryptografische Token, doch ungleich Kryptowährungen wie z.B. Bitcoin, sind sie untereinander nicht tauschbar; in anderen Worten not fungible (z.B. entspricht ein Bitcoin dem Äquivalent jedes anderen Bitcoin, während jedes NFT einem anderen zugrundeliegenden Asset entsprechen kann und dadurch sich auch die Werte unterscheiden können).[6] NFTs werden durch kryptografisches Hashing in einer Blockchain erstellt: einer bestimmten Anzahl Zeichen, die verschlüsselt und randomisiert eine Kette identifizierbarer Blöcke in einer Blockchain bilden.[7] Diese kryptografische Transaktion gewährleistet die Echtheit jeder digitalen Datei und bietet eine digitale Signatur, mit der ein Besitz des NFTs zurückverfolgt werden kann.[7] However, data links that point to details like where the art is stored can die.[8]

Verwendungszwecke

Datei:Hashmask 15753.jpg
Diese Grafik, Hashmask 15753 (1 von 16.384) von "Suum Cuique Labs GmbH", wurde als NFT über dieEthereum-Blockchain verkauft.

Die einzigartige Identität und der Besitzt eines NFT werden über die jeweilige Blockchain verifiziert.[9] Der Besitz eines NFT wird oft verbunden mit der Lizenz das digitale Objekt zu nutzen, doch generell geht das Copyright nicht in den Besitz von KäuferInnen über: manche Lizensen werden nur zur persönlichen, nicht-kommerziellen Nutzung gewährt, während andere dies explizit erlauben.[10]

Digitale Kunst

Digitale Kunst war sehr früh ein Anwendungszweck von NFTs, da die Einzigartigkeit des Kunstwerks mühelos durch die Blockchain-Technologie bestätigt werden konnte. Dies traf auch auf die digitalen Signaturen und den Besitz solcher NFTs zu.[11] Das Digitalkunstwerk mit dem Titel "Everydays – The First 5000 Days", des Künstlers Mike Winkelmann, auch bekannt als Beeple, wurde 2021 für über 69 Millionen US-Dollar verkauft.[12][13] Der Kauf markierte einen Meilenstein bei Auktionen, war es tatsächlich der dritthöchste jemals bezahlte Betrag, der jemals für einen noch lebenden Künstler bezahlt wurde (nach Jeff Koons und David Hockney). Ein anderes Kunstwerk von "Beeple" mit dem Titel "Crossroad" (Kreuzung), bestehend aus einem 10-Sekunden-Video von animierten Fußgängern, wurde für 6,6 Millionen US-Dollar auf einem Online-Kryptomarktplatz verkauft.[14][15]

Ein 3D-Modell eines Hauses mit dem Titel "Mars House" der Künstlerin Krista Kim wurde als digitales Immobilien-Asset für über 500.000 US-Dollar verkauft.[16]

Sammelobjekte

NFTs können auch digitale Sammlungen, in dem Falle Kopien, realer Sammelkarten repräsentieren. Im Februar 2021 verkaufte sich eine LeBron James-Slamdunk-NFT-Sammelkarte auf dem NBA-Top-Shot-Marktplatz für 208.000 US-Dollar.[17]

Videospiele

NFTs können auch in-game assets sein, etwa digitale Ländereien, die von den NutzerInnen statt den VideospielentwicklerInnen kontrolliert werden. NFTs können auch auf Drittmarktplätzen gehandelt werden, sogar ohne explizite Erlaubnis der Spieleentwickler. Im Februar 2021 vermeldete Axie Infinity den Rekordverkauf in Höhe von 1,5 Millionen US-Dollar für ein Stück digitales Land.[18]

Musik

Die Blockchain-Technologie und das ihr zugrundeliegende Netzwerk gaben MusikerInnen die Möglichkeit ihre Werke in Tokens umzuwandeln und dadurch diese als NFTs zu veröffentlichen. Dies erweiterte die Liste der Optionen für MusikerInnen und KünstlerInnen ihre Werke und Musik zu monetarisieren. Auch die öffentliche Wahrnehmung ließ sich in vielen Fällen dadurch beeinflussen oder gar verbessern. Im Zuge der Verluste durch die COVID-19-Viruspandemie waren NFTs eine sehr lukrative und clevere Alternative der Einnahmequelle, da ausgefallene Konzerte und Veröffentlichungen die Einnahmen der Musikindustrie bis zu 85% gegenüber Vorjahreszeiträumen fallen ließen.[19]

NFTs were utilized by artists to increase revenue during the COVID-19 pandemic. In February 2021, NFTs reportedly generated around $25 million within the music industry (in an industry with annual revenue of over $20 billion).[20] On February 28, 2021, electronic dance musician 3LAU sold a collection of 33 NFTs for a total of $11.7 million to commemorate the three-year anniversary of his Ultraviolet album.[21] On March 3, 2021, rock band Kings of Leon became the first to announce the release of a new album, When You See Yourself, in the form of an NFT which generated a reported $2 million in sales.[22] Other musicians that have used NFTs include American rapper Lil Pump,[23][24][25] artist Shepard Fairey[26][27] and rapper Eminem.[28]

Film

Im Mai 2018 ging das Filmstudio 20th Century Fox mit Atom Tickets eine Partnerschaft ein und veröffentlichte die limitierte Edition von Deadpool 2 in Posterform, um den Film zu bewerben. Diese waren über Opensea.io und die Kryptobörse GFT erhältlich.[29][30] Im März 2021 [31] wurde der von Adam Benzine erstellte Film Claude Lanzmann: Spectres of the Shoah der erste für einen Oscar nominierte Film der als NFT über die Plattform "Rarible"[31] versteigert wurde.[32][33].

Weitere Projekte der Filmindustrie mit Bezug zu NFTs waren die Ankündigung der exklusiven NFT-Kunstsammlung zu Godzilla vs. Kong[34] und Filmemacher Kevin Smith aus April 2021, dass dessen kommender Horror Killroy Was Here als NFT veröffentlicht werden würde.[35]

Sport

NFTs werden auch im Sport genutzt, so z.B. im September 2019, als der NBA-Spieler Spencer Dinwiddie seinen Vertrag in einer Blockchain festschreiben ließ, so dass andere in diesen investieren konnten.[36][37] Darüberhinaus arbeitet die Blockchaintechnologie-Firma "Dapper Labs" mit der US-amerikanischen Basketballliga NBA zusammen, um "N.B.A Top Shot" zu erbauen, ein Marktplatz für Videoclips zu Basketball-Highlights.[14]

Mode

2019 erhielt Nike ein Patent, das einer Blockchain-Technologie die Möglichkeit bietet kryptografisch gesicherte digitale Assets in Form von NFTs mit physischen Produkten zu verknüpfen, wie z.B. einem Paar Sneakers, mit dem Titel "CryptoKicks".[38][39]

Pornografie

Einige Stars aus der Unterhaltungsindustrie für Erwachsene haben ihre eigenen pornografischen Werke mittlerweile als Token erstellt, um damit einzigartige Werke an ihre KundInnen verkaufen zu können. Allerdings ist der Verkauf und der Erwerb solcher Werke bis heute über öffentliche Marktplätze stark eingeschränkt, in anderen gleich komplett verboten.[40][41]

Universität

Im Mai 2021 kündigte die UC Berkeley an, dass sie zwei Patente für Nobelpreis-prämierte als NFT versteigern möchte: das für die GenschereCRISPR-Cas9, sowie die Immuntherapie gegen Krebs.[42] Die Universität wird die Besitzrechte an den Patenten weiterhin behalten, versteigert jedoch die Dokumentenform als NFT, welche auch der Forschung zur Verfügung steht.[42] The NFTs were sold on June 8, 2021 for 22 ETH (ca. USD 55,000. [43]

Copyright

Ownership of an NFT does not inherently grant copyright to whatever digital asset the token represents.[44][45] While someone may sell an NFT representing their work, the buyer will not necessarily receive copyright privileges when ownership of the NFT is changed and so the original owner is allowed to create more NFTs of the same work.[46][47] In that sense, an NFT is merely a proof of ownership that is separate from a copyright.[45][48] According to legal scholar Rebecca Tushnet, "In one sense, the purchaser acquires whatever the art world thinks they have acquired. They definitely do not own the copyright to the underlying work unless it is explicitly transferred."[49] In practice, NFT purchasers do not generally acquire the copyright of the underlying artwork.[50]

Standards in blockchains

Specific token standards have been created to support various blockchain use-cases. These include the Ethereum ERC-721 standard of CryptoKitties, and the more recent ERC-1155 standard.[51] The FLOW and Bitcoin Cash blockchains support NFTs.[52][53]

Ethereum

ERC-721[51] was the first standard for representing non-fungible digital assets on the Ethereum blockchain. ERC-721 is an inheritable Solidity smart contract standard, meaning that developers can create new ERC-721-compliant contracts by importing it from the OpenZeppelin library. ERC-721 provides core methods that allow tracking the owner of a unique identifier, as well as a permissioned way for the owner to transfer the asset to others.[54]

The ERC-1155 standard[51] offers "semi-fungibility", as well as providing a superset of ERC-721 functionality (meaning that an ERC-721 asset could be built using ERC-1155). Unlike ERC-721 where a unique ID represents a single asset, the unique ID of an ERC-1155 token represent a class of assets, and there is an additional quantity field to represent the amount of the class that a particular wallet has.[55] The assets under the same class are interchangeable, and the user can transfer any amount of assets to others.[55]

FLOW

The FLOW blockchain which uses proof of stake consensus model supports NFTs, for example NBA Top Shot is run on the FLOW blockchain. Cryptokitties plans to switch from Ethereum to FLOW in the future.[52]

Tezos

Tezos is a blockchain network that operates on proof of stake and supports the sale of NFT art.[56]

History

Early history (2012–2017)

Datei:Etheria presentation Devcon1.jpg
Presentation of Etheria at DEVCON 1. November 13, 2015.

The first one-off NFT was created on May 3, 2014, by Kevin McCoy and Anil Dash, live at the Seven on Seven conference at the New Museum in New York City. This experiment represents the first time a non-fungible, tradable blockchain marker was explicitly, via on-chain metadata (enabled by Namecoin), linked to a unique work of art,[57] standing in stark contrast to the multi-unit, fungible, metadata-less "colored coins" of other blockchains and Counterparty.

In October, 2015, the first fully-fledged NFT project, Etheria, was launched and demonstrated live at DEVCON 1, Ethereum's first developer conference, in London, UK, just three months after the launch of the Ethereum blockchain itself. Most of Etheria's 457 purchasable and tradable hexagonal tiles went unsold for more than 5 years until March 13, 2021, when renewed interest in NFTs sparked a buying frenzy. Within 24 hours, all tiles of the current version and a prior version, each hardcoded to 1 ETH ($0.43 cents at the time of launch), were sold for a total of $1.4 million.[58]

Public awareness (2017–2021)

In 2017, the Ethereum blockchain started to gain prominence over bitcoin based token platforms, due to Ethereum having a system for token creation and storage built right into its blockchain thus eliminating the need for third-party platforms like Counterparty, and was the company to coin the term non-fungible token. Also in 2017, the American studio Larva Labs released CryptoPunks, a project to trade unique cartoon characters, on the Ethereum blockchain.[59][60][61] In late 2017, another project called CryptoKitties where players adopt and trade virtual cats was released and quickly went viral, raising a $12.5 million investment and some kitties were selling for over $100,000.[62][63][64]

In 2018, Decentraland, a blockchain-based virtual world, raised $26 million in an initial coin offering, and had a $20 million internal economy as of September 2018.[65][66]

In 2019, Nike patented a system called CryptoKicks that would use NFTs to verify the authenticity of physical sneakers and give a virtual version of the shoe to the customer.[67]

In early 2020, the developer of CryptoKitties, Dapper Labs, released the beta version of NBA TopShot, a project to sell tokenized collectibles of NBA highlights.[68] The project was built on top of Flow, a newer and more efficient blockchain compared to Ethereum.[52] Later that year, the project was released to the public and reported over $230 million in gross sales as of February 28, 2021.[69]

The NFT market experienced rapid growth during 2020, with its value tripling to $250 million.[70] In the first three months of 2021, more than $200 million were spent on NFTs.[71]

NFT buying surge (2021–present)

In 2021, interest in NFTs increased. Blockchains such as Ethereum, Flow, and Tezos established specific standards to ensure that the digital item represented are authentically one-of-a-kind. NFTs are now being used to commodify digital assets in art, music, sports, and other popular entertainment, with most NFTs part of the Ethereum blockchain, while other blockchains can implement their own versions of NFTs.[72] A number of high-profile sales were made just in the first few months of the year.[73] In February 2021, the musician Grimes sold around $6 million worth of tokens representing digital art on Nifty Gateway.[74] Later that month, an NFT representing the meme animation Nyan Cat was sold in an Internet marketplace for just under $600,000.[75] On February 28, 2021, electronic dance musician 3LAU sold a collection of 33 NFTs for a total of $11.7 million to commemorate the three-year anniversary of his Ultraviolet album.[21] On March 5, 2021, the band Kings of Leon became the first to sell a newly released album, When You See Yourself, in the form of an NFT, generating a reported $2 million in sales.[76][77] On March 11, 2021, American digital artist Beeple's work Everydays: The First 5000 Days became the first NFT artwork to be listed at prominent auction house Christie's and sold for $69.3 million.[78][79] On March 22, 2021, Jack Dorsey, founder of Twitter and Square, sold an NFT representing his first tweet for over $2.5 million.[47][80]

The speculative market for NFTs has led more investors to trade at greater volumes and rates.[79] The buying surge of NFTs was called an economic bubble by experts, who also compared it to the Dot-com bubble.[81][82] By mid-April 2021, demand appeared to have substantially subsided, causing prices to fall significantly; early buyers were reported to have "done supremely well" by Bloomberg Businessweek.[83][84] An NFT of the source code of the World Wide Web, credited to internet inventor computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee, was auctioned in June 2021 by Sotheby’s in London,[85][86][87] and was sold for USD$5.4.[88]

Popular culture

Popularity

In 2017, NFTs circulated by CryptoKitties, a project developed by Dapper Labs to sell ownership of unique cat avatars, jumped so much in popularity that a surge in demand took up significant transaction space on the Ethereum blockchain and slowed the entire Ethereum network in December of that year.[89][90]

NFTs have become increasingly popular in the early months of 2021 because of recent high-profile sales.[73] Some notable NFT sales in 2021 like NBA Top Shot's video clip of LeBron James selling for $208,000 on February 22, 3LAU’s album bringing in $11.7 million in sales as of February 28, and digital artist Beeple's piece selling for $69.3 million on March 11, have made NFTs an especially current topic in popular culture.[73][91][92] In March 2021 alone, NFT sales exceeded $220 million making up nearly half of all-time NFT sales ever at the time.[93] This renewed interest in NFTs, particularly those in art, music, and sports, have made way into mainstream consciousness, especially amongst the younger generation.[94][95] In a March 27, 2021 Saturday Night Live episode, cast members satirized this growing niche with a comedy skit on NFTs, which was later sold in the form of an NFT for $365,000 on April 6, 2021.[96]

Many investors are willing to pay high rates to secure and promote NFTs and continue to do so because they anticipate NFTs to be the biggest and most profitable collectibles in the future.[97][98] Venture capitalist David Pakman has claimed that the growing value of NFTs is redefining the major entertainment industry as of early 2021.[99] Investors like Mark Cuban have proposed new ways of implementing NFT technology to monetize sports tickets and merchandise sales.[100]

Criticism

Storage off-chain

NFTs involving digital art generally do not store the file on the blockchain due to its size. The token functions in a way more similar to a certificate of ownership, with a web address pointing to the piece of art in question, making the art still subject to link rot.[57]

Environmental concerns

NFT purchases and sales are enmeshed in a controversy regarding the high energy use, and consequent greenhouse gas emissions, associated with blockchain transactions.[101] A major aspect of this is the proof-of-work protocol required to regulate and verify blockchain transactions on public networks, which consumes a large amount of electricity.[102][103] Estimating the carbon footprint of a given NFT transaction involves a variety of assumptions about the manner in which that transaction is set up on the blockchain, the economic behavior of blockchain miners (and the energy demands of their mining equipment),[104] as well as the amount of renewable energy being used on these networks.[105] There are also conceptual questions, such as whether the carbon footprint estimate for an NFT purchase should incorporate some portion of the ongoing energy demand of the underlying network, or just the marginal impact of that particular purchase.[106] An analogy that's been described for this is the footprint associated with an additional passenger on a given airline flight.[101]

Some more recent NFT technologies use alternative validation protocols, such as proof of stake, that have much less energy usage for a given validation cycle. Other approaches to reducing electricity include the use of off-chain transactions as part of minting an NFT.[101] A number of NFT art sites are also looking to address these concerns, and some are moving to using technologies and protocols with lower associated footprints.[107] Others now allow the option of buying carbon offsets when making NFT purchases, although the environmental benefits of this have been questioned.[108] In some instances, NFT artists have decided against selling some of their own work to limit carbon emission contributions.[109]

See also

References

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External links

  1. ↑ Sam Dean: $69 million for digital art? The NFT craze, explained (en-US) 11. März 2021.
  2. ↑ The NFT Market Tripled Last Year, and It's Gaining Even More Momentum in 2021.
  3. ↑ Frank, Robert (13 April 2021). "NFT sales top $2 billion in first quarter, with twice as many buyers as sellers". CNBC. Retrieved 1 July 2021. 
  4. ↑ Dean, Sam (March 11, 2021). "$69 million for digital art? The NFT craze, explained". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 12, 2021. 
  5. ↑ Jacob Kastrenakes: Beeple sold an NFT for $69 million (en) The Verge. 11. März 2021.
  6. ↑ "WTF Is an NFT, Anyway? And Should I Care?". Wired (in English). ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2021-03-13. 
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 Dragan Boscovic: How nonfungible tokens work and where they get their value – a cryptocurrency expert explains NFTs (en)
  8. ↑ Kastrenakes, Jacob (March 25, 2021). "Your Million-Dollar NFT Can Break Tomorrow If You're Not Careful". The Verge. Retrieved March 31, 2021. 
  9. ↑ "Want to Buy an NFT? Here's What to Know". The Wall Street Journal. March 13, 2021. Retrieved March 14, 2021. 
  10. ↑ https://www.mondaq.com/canada/copyright/1067734/nfts39-nifty-copyright-issues-
  11. ↑ Patterson, Dan (March 4, 2021). "Blockchain company buys and burns Banksy artwork to turn it into a digital original". CBS News. Retrieved March 17, 2021. 
  12. ↑ Jacob Kastrenakes: Beeple sold an NFT for $69 million (en) The Verge. 11. März 2021.
  13. ↑ Thaddeus-Johns, Josie (2021-03-11). "What Are NFTs, Anyway? One Just Sold for $69 Million". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-04-14. 
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 Reyburn, Scott (2021-03-11). "JPG File Sells for $69 Million, as 'NFT Mania' Gathers Pace". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-04-14. 
  15. ↑ Tessa Solomon: Beeple NFT Artwork Sells for $6.6 M. Ahead of Viral Christie's Auction (en-US) 25. Februar 2021.
  16. ↑ Artist Krista Kim sells "first NFT digital house" for over $500,000 (en) 22. März 2021.
  17. ↑ "How a 10-second video clip sold for $6.6 million". Reuters. 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2021-03-22. 
  18. ↑ Marco Quiroz-Gutierrez: NFTs Are Spurring a Digital Land Grab—in Videogame Worlds. 22 March 2021.
  19. ↑ "Musicians will lose two-thirds of their income in 2020". BBC News (in English). 2020-11-18. Retrieved 2021-05-07. 
  20. ↑ Music-related NFT sales have topped $25m in the past month (en-US) 12. März 2021.
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Abram Brown: Largest NFT Sale Ever Came From A Business School Dropout Turned Star DJ (en)
  22. ↑ Steele, Anne (2021-03-23). "Musicians Turn to NFTs to Make Up for Lost Revenue". Wall Street Journal (in English). ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2021-05-07. 
  23. ↑ "CEO of Sweet Talks NFT Partnership with Rapper Lil Pump". Cheddar. 2021-03-23. Retrieved 2021-03-29. 
  24. ↑ "Musician NFT Projects, Ranked by How Many F's I Can Give". Vulture. 2021-03-18. Retrieved 2021-03-29. 
  25. ↑ "Rappers and NFTs – How Hip-Hop Is Cashing In on Non-Fungible Tokens". XXL Mag. 2021-03-23. Retrieved 2021-03-29. 
  26. ↑ Dawn C. Chmielewski: ‘Deadpool 2’ Jumps On The Digital Collectibles Bandwagon (en-US) 3. August 2018.
  27. ↑ Shirley Halperin: Mike Dean and Shepard Fairey Team for NFT Offering 'OBEY 4:22' (EXCLUSIVE) (en-US) 21. April 2021.
  28. ↑ Eminem's First NFT Drop, 'Shady Con,' Includes One-of-a-Kind Slim Shady-Produced Beats (en)
  29. ↑ Deadpool posters can now be bought as NFTs (en-US)
  30. ↑ Dawn C. Chmielewski: ‘Deadpool 2’ Jumps On The Digital Collectibles Bandwagon (en-US) 3. August 2018.
  31. ↑ 31,0 31,1 Claude Lanzmann: Spectres of the Shoah (Exclusive NFT 1st Ed.) (en)
  32. ↑ Manori Ravindran: NFT Craze Enters Film World: 'Claude Lanzmann' Documentary is First Oscar Nominee to Be Released as Digital Token (EXCLUSIVE) (en-US) 15. März 2021.
  33. ↑ NFTs are Confusing Everyone, But the Newest Internet Token is Raking in the Memes (en) 22. März 2021.
  34. ↑ Haley Bosselman: 'Godzilla vs. Kong' to Have First Major Motion Picture NFT Art Release (en-US) 31. März 2021.
  35. ↑ Anthony D'Alessandro: Kevin Smith To Sell Horror Movie 'Killroy Was Here' As NFT, Launches Jay And Silent Bob's Crypto Studio (en-US) 13. April 2021.
  36. ↑ Arnovitz, Kevin (October 21, 2019). "How investing $150K in Spencer Dinwiddie would actually work". ESPN. Retrieved April 1, 2021. 
  37. ↑ "Sources: Spencer Dinwiddie to convert his NBA contract into a secured digital investment. Here's what that means". The Athletic. 2019-09-12. Retrieved 2021-04-01. 
  38. ↑ Matthew Beedham: Nike now holds patent for blockchain-based sneakers called 'CryptoKicks' (en) 10. Dezember 2019.
  39. ↑ Mitchell Clark: People are spending millions on NFTs. What? Why? (en) 3. März 2021.
  40. ↑ EJ Dickson: Porn Creators Are Getting In on the NFT Craze. 16 March 2021.
  41. ↑ Samantha Cole: 'Building the Cockchain:' How NSFW Artists Are Shaping the Future of NFTs. 19 March 2021.
  42. ↑ 42,0 42,1 UC Berkeley Will Auction NFTs for 2 Nobel Prize Patents | Inside Higher Ed (en)
  43. ↑ https://foundation.app/@UCBerkeley/the-fourth-pillar-uc-berkeley-2021-41258
  44. ↑ Gallagher, Jacob (2021-03-15). "NFTs Are the Biggest Internet Craze. Do They Work for Sneakers?". Wall Street Journal (in English). ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2021-06-26. 
  45. ↑ 45,0 45,1 Thaddeus-Johns, Josie (2021-03-11). "What Are NFTs, Anyway? One Just Sold for $69 Million". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-06-26. 
  46. ↑ Salmon, Felix (March 12, 2021). "How to exhibit your very own $69 million Beeple". Axios. Retrieved March 13, 2021. 
  47. ↑ 47,0 47,1 Clark, Mitchell (March 11, 2021). "NFTs, explained". The Verge. Retrieved March 11, 2021. 
  48. ↑ "NFT blockchain drives surge in digital art auctions". BBC. March 3, 2021. Retrieved March 12, 2021. 
  49. ↑ Memes for Sale? Making sense of NFTs.
  50. ↑ Burton, Amber (2021-03-13). "Want to Buy an NFT? Here's What to Know". Wall Street Journal (in English). ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2021-06-26. 
  51. ↑ 51,0 51,1 51,2 Gian Volpicelli: The bitcoin elite are spending millions on collectable memes. 24 February 2021.
  52. ↑ 52,0 52,1 52,2 "NFTs are both priceless and worthless". Engadget. 2021-03-11. Retrieved 2021-04-09. 
  53. ↑ "Uniswap UNI Token was "Shining Star" of DeFi this Past Week, while Ethereum based NFTs Rising in Popularity, OKEx Reports". Crowdfund Insider. 2021-03-07. Retrieved 2021-04-09. 
  54. ↑ EIP-721: ERC-721 Non-Fungible Token Standard (en)
  55. ↑ 55,0 55,1 EIP-1155: ERC-1155 Multi Token Standard (en)
  56. ↑ Sparkes, Matthew (March 30, 2021). "NFT developers say cryptocurrencies must tackle their carbon emissions". NewScientist. Retrieved March 31, 2021. 
  57. ↑ 57,0 57,1 Anil Dash: NFTs Weren't Supposed to End Like This (en) 2. April 2021.
  58. ↑ The Cult of CryptoPunks (en-US)
  59. ↑ "Should You Buy a Bitcoin-Inspired Image of Lindsay Lohan?". Bloomberg.com (in English). 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2021-04-07. 
  60. ↑ Jason Abbruzzese: This ethereum-based project could change how we think about digital art (en)
  61. ↑ Chevet, Sylve (2018-05-10). "Blockchain Technology and Non-Fungible Tokens: Reshaping Value Chains in Creative Industries" (in English). Rochester, NY. SSRN 3212662 Freely accessible. 
  62. ↑ "CryptoKitties Mania Overwhelms Ethereum Network's Processing". Bloomberg.com (in English). 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2021-04-07. 
  63. ↑ CryptoKitties raises $12M from Andreessen Horowitz and Union Square Ventures (en-US)
  64. ↑ Evelyn Cheng: Meet CryptoKitties, the $100,000 digital beanie babies epitomizing the cryptocurrency mania (en) 6. Dezember 2017.
  65. ↑ Aaron Hankin: People are making more than 500% buying property that doesn't actually exist (en-US)
  66. ↑ "How to Make a Killing in Virtual Real Estate". Bloomberg.com (in English). 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2021-04-07. 
  67. ↑ Gallagher, Jacob (2021-03-15). "NFTs Are the Biggest Internet Craze. Do They Work for Sneakers?". Wall Street Journal (in English). ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2021-04-07. 
  68. ↑ CryptoKitties developer launches NBA TopShot, a new blockchain-based collectible collab with the NBA (en-US)
  69. ↑ Jabari Young: People have spent more than $230 million buying and trading digital collectibles of NBA highlights (en) 28. Februar 2021.
  70. ↑ The NFT Market Tripled Last Year, and It's Gaining Even More Momentum in 2021.
  71. ↑ NFTs Are Shaking Up the Art World—But They Could Change So Much More.
  72. ↑ Mitchell Clark: People are spending millions on NFTs. What? Why? (en) 3. März 2021.
  73. ↑ 73,0 73,1 73,2 Howcroft, Elizabeth (2021-03-17). "Explainer: NFTs are hot. So what are they?". Reuters (in English). Retrieved 2021-04-06. 
  74. ↑ Jacob Kastrenakes: Grimes sold $6 million worth of digital art as NFTs (en) 1. März 2021.
  75. ↑ Griffith, Erin (2021-02-22). "Why an Animated Flying Cat With a Pop-Tart Body Sold for Almost $600,000". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-04-07. 
  76. ↑ Samantha Hissong: Kings of Leon Will Be the First Band to Release an Album as an NFT (en-US) 3. März 2021.
  77. ↑ Samantha Hissong: Music NFTs Have Gone Mainstream. Who's In? (en-US) 9. März 2021.
  78. ↑ Beeple's masterwork: the first purely digital artwork offered at Christie's | Christie's (en)
  79. ↑ 79,0 79,1 Thaddeus-Johns, Josie (February 24, 2021). "Beeple Brings Crypto to Christie's". The New York Times. Retrieved March 12, 2021. 
  80. ↑ "The Next Frontier of the NFT Gold Rush: Your Tweets". Wired (in English). ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2021-04-07. 
  81. ↑ Reyburn, Scott (2021-03-30). "Art's NFT Question: Next Frontier in Trading, or a New Form of Tulip?". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-05-03. 
  82. ↑ Small, Zachary (2021-04-28). "As Auctioneers and Artists Rush Into NFTs, Many Collectors Stay Away". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-05-03. 
  83. ↑ Tarmy, James; Kharif, Olga (April 15, 2021). "These Crypto Bros Want to Be the Guggenheims of NFT Art". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved April 29, 2021. 
  84. ↑ Anny Shaw: NFT prices are plummeting. What could this mean for the art world? (en)
  85. ↑ "NFT representing Tim Berners-Lee's source code for the web to go on sale". theguardian.com. theguardian.com. 15 June 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2021. 
  86. ↑ This Changed Everything: Source Code for WWW x Tim Berners-Lee, an NFT. sothebys.com.
  87. ↑ "The web's source code is being auctioned as an NFT by inventor Tim Berners-Lee". cnbc.com. cnbc.com. 15 June 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021. 
  88. ↑ Lawler, Richard (30 June 2021). "Sir Tim Berners-Lee's web source code NFT sells for $5.4 million". The Verge. VOX Media. Retrieved 30 June 2021. 
  89. ↑ "CryptoKitties craze slows down transactions on Ethereum". BBC News (in English). 2017-12-05. Retrieved 2021-04-06. 
  90. ↑ CryptoKitties: CryptoKitties | Collect and breed digital cats! (en)
  91. ↑ Timothy Rapp: LeBron James Lakers Highlight Sells for Record $208K on NBA Top Shot (en)
  92. ↑ Reyburn, Scott (2021-03-11). "JPG File Sells for $69 Million, as 'NFT Mania' Gathers Pace". The New York Times (in English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-04-06. 
  93. ↑ Ben Piven: NFT craze: Why are non-fungible tokens all the rage? (en)
  94. ↑ What are NFTs and why are they so popular? (en)
  95. ↑ Margaux MacColl: These Gen Z VCs are getting in on the NFT frenzy — here are the 4 NFTs they've collected so far.
  96. ↑ Jazmin Goodwin, CNN Business: Still not sure what NFTs are? 'SNL' explains with Eminem parody.
  97. ↑ If you haven't followed NFTs, here's why you should start (en-US)
  98. ↑ What are NFTs and why are they suddenly so popular? (en) 2. April 2021.
  99. ↑ Why every major entertainment company will get into NFTs, according to the VC behind NBA Top Shot (en-US)
  100. ↑ Taylor Locke: Mark Cuban: The Dallas Mavericks are thinking about 'turning our tickets into NFTs' (en) 26. März 2021.
  101. ↑ 101,0 101,1 101,2 Justine Calma: The climate controversy swirling around NFTs (en) 15. März 2021.
  102. ↑ Krause, Max; Tolaymat, Thabet (2018). "Quantification of energy and carbon costs for mining cryptocurrencies". Nature Sustainability. 1: 814. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0188-8 Freely accessible. 
  103. ↑ Gallersdorfer, Ulrich; Klassen, Lena; Stoll, Christian (2020). "Energy Consumption of Cryptocurrencies Beyond Bitcoin". Joule. 4(9). doi:10.1016/j.joule.2020.07.013. PMC 7402366 Freely accessible Check |pmc= value (help). 
  104. ↑ Alex deVries: Bitcoin's Growing Energy Problem (en) 16. Mai 2018.
  105. ↑ Leigh Cuen: The debate about cryptocurrency and energy consumption (en) 21. März 2021.
  106. ↑ Shanti Escalante De-Mattei: Should You Worry About the Environmental Impact of Your NFTs? (en) 14. April 2021.
  107. ↑ Lucas Matney: ConsenSys launches a more energy-efficient NFT ecosystem with a project from artist Damien Hirst as its first drop (en) 30. März 2021.
  108. ↑ Valentina Di Liscia: Does Carbon Offsetting Really Address the NFT Ecological Dilemma? (en) 5. April 2021.
  109. ↑ Peter Howson: NFTs: why digital art has such a massive carbon footprint (en)
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